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. 2023 Jan 1;13(1):20–39. doi: 10.7150/thno.76894

Table 1.

Summary of engineering methods of biomembranes and introduced additional functions

Source cells Inherent functions Engineering methods Introduced additional functions Particle size (nm) References
Red blood cells Prolong blood circulation time;
Abnormal RBCs can target the mononuclear macrophage system.		 Postinsertion method Enhance targeting ability 75-200 52,73-76
Cross physiological barriers
T cells Avoid being cleared by the immune system;
Target tumor sites.		 Metabolic engineering Enhance targeting ability 75 82
Macrophage cells Avoid being cleared by the immune system;
Target inflammatory or tumor sites.		 Postinsertion method Cross physiological barriers;
Enhance targeting ability		 123 29
Neutrophil cells Avoid being cleared by the immune system;
Extravasate across inflamed endothelial layer.		 Chemical method Enhance targeting ability 70 85
Dendritic cells Avoid being cleared by the immune system;
Present antigens to stimulate an immune response.		 Metabolic engineering Link immune-stimulatory ligands 240 87
Cancer cells Prolong blood circulation time;
Homotypic targeting capability;
Present antigens to stimulate an immune response.		 Gene engineering Enhance targeting ability;
Cross physiological barriers;
Link therapeutic ligands		 84-175 34, 91-93
Postinsertion method
Metabolic engineering
Platelets Prolong blood circulation time;
Target damaged vasculature;
Target pathogenic bacteria and cancer cells.		 Chemical method;
Postinsertion method		 Link therapeutic ligands;
Enhance targeting ability		 106-122 100-101
Exosomes The contents are inherited from the source cells;
Certain types of exosomes can cross the blood-brain barrier.		 Chemical method Enhance targeting ability;
Prolong blood circulation		 113-143 38, 112-113, 115-116
Gene engineering
Postinsertion method