| Increasing life expectancy is accompanied by more age-related and chronic posterior eye diseases, which require long-term intervention. |
| Topical eye drugs must overcome various cellular and liquid barriers to effectively enter the retina from the ocular surface. |
| Novel topical drugs with innovative formulations have shown encouraging results in improving their permeability and retention time. These formulations include nanospheres, nanocapsules, nanomicelles, nanovesicles, dendrimers, in situ gels, and microneedles. |
| The rapid and successful clinical translation of novel topical drugs relies on a thorough understanding of the significance and limitations of preclinical models. The emerging in vitro models may provide some valuable information beyond animal models. |
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