Table 2.
Effect of probiotics and prebiotics on uremic toxins, inflammation, and atherosclerosis
| Reference | Patient Type/Model (number) | Intervention | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Uremic toxins | |||
| Simenhoff et al.10 | HD patients (8) | L. acidophilus | ↓ Serum dimethylamine ↓ Nitrosodimethylamine |
| Prakash et al.142 | Uremic rats | Genetically engineered E. coli | ↓ Plasma urea |
| Ranganathan et al.173 | Nephrectomized rats | Various combinations of probiotics | ↑ Lifespan |
| ↓ BUN | |||
| Ranganathan et al.174 | Patients with CKD (13) | S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum | ↓ BUN ↓ Uric acid concentration |
| Ranganathan et al.175 | Patients with CKD (246) | S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum | ↓ BUN |
| Meijers et al.128 | HD patients (22) | Oligofructose-enriched inulin | ↓ Serum p-cresyl sulfate and generation rate |
| de Preter et al.176 | Healthy persons (50) | Oligofructose-enriched inulin | ↓ Urinary excretion of p-cresol |
| Nakabayashi et al.177 | HD patients (7) | Galacto-oligosaccharides, L. casei, and B. breve | ↓ Serum p-cresyl sulfate |
| Swanson et al.178 | Healthy persons (68) | Fructooligosaccharides and/or L. acidophilus | ↓ Fecal protein catabolites (beneficial) with fructooligosaccharides ↑ Fecal protein catabolites (harmful) with L. acidophilus |
| Atherosclerosis | |||
| Chen et al.141 | ApoE−/− mice | L. acidophilus | ↓ Atherosclerotic burden |
| Uchida et al.179 | Rabbits on a high cholesterol diet | Exopolysaccharide | ↓ Atherosclerotic lesions |
| Oxman et al.180 | Sprague-Dawley rats | L. bulgaricus-51 | ↓ Reperfusion tachyarrhythmia ↑ Functional recovery of the ischemic rat hearts ↓ Norepinephrine release |
| Naruszewicz et al.181 | Healthy persons (36) | L. plantarum 299v | ↓ Systolic BP and fibrinogen ↓ F2-Isoprostanes and IL-6 ↓ Monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells |
| Inflammation | |||
| Neyrinck et al.182 | Mice | High-molecular-weight arabinoxylane | ↑ Bifidobacteria |
| ↓ Inflammation | |||
| Cani et al.124 | Mice | Oligofructose | ↓ Endotoxemia and proinflammatory cytokines |
| Dewulf et al.183 | Obese women (30) | Inulin/oligofructose | ↓ Endotoxemia |
| Andreasen et al.184 | Patients with T2DM (45) | L. acidophilus NCFM75 | Preserved insulin sensitivity ↓ Inflammation |
| Schiffrin et al.185 | Elderly persons (74) | Oligosaccharides | ↓TNF-α and IL-6 mRNAs |
| ↓Serum sCD14 | |||
| Andreasen et al.184 | Patients with T2DM (45) | L. acidophilus | Preserved insulin sensitivity |
| Did not affect systemic inflammation | |||
| Anderson et al.186 | Elective surgical patients (137) | Combination of probiotics | No measurable effect on bacterial translocation or systemic inflammation |
| Kotzampassi et al.187 | Trauma patients | Probiotics along with and inulin, oat bran, pectin, and resistant starch | ↓ Rate of systemic inflammatory response, syndrome, infections, severe sepsis, and mortality |
HD, hemodialysis; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus.