TABLE 3.
Multivariable linear regression models for cognitive outcomes on the change in stunting status in the Young Lives cohort1
| Ethiopia | India | Peru | Vietnam | Heterogeneity of country estimates2 | |
| Mathematics achievement | |||||
| Persistently stunted | −0.22 (−0.32, −0.13)34 | −0.48 (−0.58, −0.37)4 | −0.31 (−0.43, −0.18)4 | −0.37 (−0.52, −0.21)4 | Ethiopia ≠ India, Peru ≠ India |
| Recovered | −0.12 (−0.21, −0.02)5 | −0.21 (−0.35, −0.06)4 | −0.13 (−0.23, −0.04)4 | −0.18 (−0.33, −0.03)5 | None |
| Faltered | −0.31 (−0.48, −0.14)4 | −0.06 (−0.21, 0.09) | −0.13 (−0.32, 0.06) | 0.08 (−0.11, 0.26) | Ethiopia ≠ India, Ethiopia ≠ Vietnam |
| Observations | 1687 | 1803 | 1793 | 1806 | — |
| R2 | 0.45 | 0.26 | 0.35 | 0.37 | — |
| Test: B (falter) = B (recover) | 0.01 | 0.21 | 1.00 | 0.04 | — |
| Test: B (recover) = B (persist) | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.06 | — |
| Test: B (persist) = B (falter) | 0.26 | 0.00 | 0.15 | 0.00 | — |
| Reading comprehension | |||||
| Persistently stunted | −0.24 (−0.38, −0.10)4 | −0.38 (−0.51, −0.26)4 | −0.29 (−0.46, −0.12)4 | −0.36 (−0.53, −0.18)4 | None |
| Recovered | −0.15 (−0.26, −0.04)5 | −0.23 (−0.36, −0.09)4 | −0.16 (−0.28, −0.04)4 | −0.10 (−0.28, 0.07) | None |
| Faltered | −0.37 (−0.55, −0.19)4 | −0.05 (−0.21, 0.10) | −0.22 (−0.43, −0.01)5 | −0.23 (−0.42, −0.03)5 | Ethiopia ≠ India |
| Observations | 1404 | 1775 | 1659 | 1800 | — |
| R2 | 0.26 | 0.14 | 0.26 | 0.21 | — |
| Test: B (falter) = B (recover) | 0.03 | 0.10 | 0.58 | 0.43 | — |
| Test: B (recover) = B (persist) | 0.14 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.07 | — |
| Test: B (persist) = B (falter) | 0.16 | 0.00 | 0.57 | 0.17 | — |
| Receptive vocabulary | |||||
| Persistently stunted | −0.18 (−0.30, −0.06)4 | −0.31 (−0.44, −0.19)4 | −0.30 (−0.45, −0.14)4 | −0.13 (−0.25, −0.02)5 | Peru ≠ India, Vietnam ≠ India |
| Recovered | −0.09 (−0.18, −0.01)5 | −0.25 (−0.38, −0.11)4 | −0.13 (−0.26, −0.01)5 | −0.01 (−0.11, 0.13) | Peru ≠ India, Vietnam ≠ India |
| Faltered | −0.24 (−0.41, −0.07)4 | −0.16 (−0.30, −0.03)5 | −0.14 (−0.29, 0.00) | −0.07 (−0.25, 0.11) | Ethiopia ≠ Peru |
| Observations | 1733 | 1800 | 1753 | 1734 | — |
| R2 | 0.46 | 0.17 | 0.44 | 0.33 | — |
| Test: B (falter) = B (recover) | 0.10 | 0.36 | 0.91 | 0.41 | — |
| Test: B (recover) = B (persist) | 0.13 | 0.36 | 0.03 | 0.02 | — |
| Test: B (persist) = B (falter) | 0.48 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.58 | — |
The mathematics achievement test consisted of 29 items, the reading comprehension test (Early Grade Reading Assessment) consisted of 74 items, and the receptive vocabulary test (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) consisted of 204 items (Ethiopia, India, and Vietnam) and 125 items (Peru). Stunting status from 1 to 8 y of age was defined as follows: recovered [stunted (height-for-age z score less than −2.0) at age 1 y and not stunted at age 8 y], faltered (not stunted at age 1 y and stunted at age 8 y), persistently stunted (stunted at ages 1 and 8 y), or never stunted (not stunted at ages 1 and 8 y, considered the reference). Regressions controlled for age (in mo) at round 3, sex of the child, age of the mother, years of schooling of the mother, years of schooling of the father, asset index, urban residence, community population, community wealth, presence of a community hospital, country, examination administered in the native language, and language in which the examination was taken.
Pooled country estimates were derived from a pooled model with country interactions to formally test for heterogeneity of associations by country (country differences reported at P < 0.05).
Effect size; 95% CI in parentheses (all such values). Effect sizes are presented from ordinary least-squares regression models for cognitive outcomes (effect size = coefficient estimate ÷ SD). See Table 1 for SDs.
P< 0.01.
P < 0.05.