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. 2026 Oct 19;21:604909. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S604909

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© 2026 Chen et al.

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CRISPR-SNA editing: uptake, endosomal escape, nuclear entry, DNA repair via NHEJ or HDR. The diagram illustrates the CRISPR-SNA genome editing process. It begins with CRISPR-SNA entering a cell and forming an endosome. The Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complex is released through endosomal escape and enters the nucleus. Inside the nucleus, the complex cleaves target DNA. Two DNA repair pathways are shown: non-homologous end joining, labeled as gene disruption and homology-directed repair, labeled as precise editing, using donor DNA. Arrows indicate the flow from cellular uptake to DNA repair outcomes. — Representative SNA-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. Following cellular uptake, CRISPR-SNAs release Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes through endosomal escape and cargo release. The complexes enter the nucleus and cleave target DNA. DNA repair through non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) can disrupt target genes, while homology-directed repair (HDR) uses donor DNA for precise editing.