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. 2026 Oct 9;17:1937765. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2026.1937765

FIGURE 2.

Infographic illustrating the roles of transposable elements (TEs) in phenotypic adaptability. Top left: High-altitude adaptation via HIF pathway genes and TEs, leading to genetic variation in populations like Himalayas, Andes, and Ethiopian Highlands. Top right: Stress-induced adaptability; environmental stressors activate TEs, causing transient phenotypic plasticity and heritable genetic variability through epigenetic regulation. Bottom left: Human pigmentation and tail evolution; specific Alu and SVA-F insertions lead to tail-loss and population-specific pigmentation. Bottom right: TE domestication and co-option influences immune system adaptation, brain development, and gene regulation through chromatin looping and regulatory elements.

Structural variants such as transposable elements have been implicated in several phenotypic changes during human life (such as stress response) and evolution, from adaptation to high altitude, to skin/hair pigmentation and tail-loss evolution. They have also been domesticated to serve host cellular functions and became important contributors for immune system’s evolution. Created with biorender.com.