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. 2026 Oct 9;17:1815770. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2026.1815770

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Copyright © 2026 Zhao, Zhang and Zhao.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Box plots comparing three groups (AT, TC, TO) across four soil parameters: pH, electrical conductivity (EC in microSiemens per centimeter), available phosphorus (AP in milligrams per kilogram), and available nitrogen (AN in milligrams per kilogram), with group differences denoted by letters above each box for statistical significance. — Variations in soil physicochemical properties across different treatments in the microbial fuel cell system. (A) Soil pH. (B) Soil electrical conductivity (EC). (C) Soil available phosphorus (AP) content. (D) Soil alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (AN) content. AT, non-electrode anaerobic control; TO, open-circuit conductive-material treatment; TC, closed-circuit treatment. Different lowercase letters indicate statistically significant differences among treatments (P < 0.05).