Table 2.
Summary of Included Studies.
| Author (Year) Country | Purpose | SDoHs | Sample size (% women) | Population | Mean Age (SD) Race** | Inflammatory Markers | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Aschbacher et al., (2021) United States |
Examine whether reports of adversity during childhood or pregnancy associate with inflammation ß | Early life adversity Total life adversity Adversity in pregnancy Income Interpersonal violence |
53 (100%) | Child-Parent Psychotherapy Health study (CPP-HEALTH) | 32.1(NR) 72% Hispanic/Latina 13% NHW 10% Asian American 4% African American |
CRP, IL-6, TNF-a, IL-1B, IL-1, IL-1RA, IL-4, IL-10, M1/M2 gene expression | Higher adversity in early life associated with higher M1/M2 gene expression. Higher lifetime adversity associated with lower immunosuppressive gene expression. Adversity during pregnancy was associated with M1/M2 imbalance among low-income women with interpersonal violence exposure. |
| 2. Beatty et al., (2014) United States |
Determine whether CRP was independently predicted by everyday discrimination or whether race or BMI modified this association over 7-years† | Everyday discrimination | 2490 (100%) | Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN) Cohort |
46.3(2.7) 49% White 24.6% Black 9.8% Japanese 8.8% Chinese 7.1% Hispanic |
CRP | Black & Hispanic women had higher levels of CRP than White, Japanese, and Chinese women. Everyday discrimination predicts CRP over time in non-obese women regardless of race. |
| 3. Bertone-Johnson et al., (2012) United States |
Evaluate associations between early-life physical and sexual abuse and inflammation† | Childhood physical abuse Childhood Sexual abuse Interpersonal violence | 702 (100%) | Premenopausal women from the Nurses’ Health Study | 43.8(NR) 90% White 10% NR |
CRP; IL-6; TNFR2 | CRP and IL-6 were associated with unwanted sexual touching and forced sex. CRP and sTNFR2 were not associated with childhood or adolescent abuse. Higher levels of CRP and IL- 6 in adulthood were associated with sexual abuse during adolescence. |
| 4. Brummett et al., (2013) United States |
Examine the association between early life SES & CRP and mediation of the association by BMI, smoking and alcohol, sex and race† | Early life-built environment Parent and participant education Annual household income |
11,371 (53.8%) | National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) Cohort Wave IV |
29(range 24–32) Among women, 70.26% White 29.56% Black |
CRP | Increased SES, education, and built environment were directly associated with decreased CRP in White women. There was a significant direct negative relationship between SES and CRP in Black women. BMI mediated the relationship between all measures of SES and CRP for White women. No mediation in Black participants. |
| 5. Clark et al., (2013) United States |
Examined associations between neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage, perceived neighborhood safety and cardiometabolic risk factors† | Neighborhood disadvantage Perceived neighborhood safety |
3909 (63%) | Jackson Heart Study | 53(median 44) 100% African American |
CRP | Neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with MetS. Lack of perceived safety was associated with elevated glucose and waist circumference. Neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage was not associated with either CRP or insulin resistance. |
| 6. Cunningham et al., (2012) United States |
Examine the influence of race, ethnicity, and gender on the association between discrimination and inflammation† | Experiences of discrimination | 3336 (44.3%) | Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study (CARDIA) | 31.64(3.84) Black 32.63(3.37) White 28.7% White 27.0% Black |
CRP | Black women reporting 1 or 2 experiences of discrimination had higher levels of CRP compared to Black women reporting no or ≥ 3 experiences of discrimination. White women reporting ≥3 experiences of discrimination had higher levels of CRP compared to White women reporting no experiences of discrimination independent of modifiable risks. |
| 7. Cutrona et al., (2015) United States |
Test a mediation model in which chronic financial strain predicts peripheral blood stream inflammation which leads to increased HbA1c and increased T2D risk† | Financial strain | 312 (100%) | Community Health Study(FACHS) | 46.9(7) 100% African American |
CRP, IL-6R | Chronic financial strain predicted sIL-6R. Relationship between chronic financial strain and HbA1c was mediated by sIL-6R. The association between financial strain and HbA1c was mediated by inflammation (sIL-6R). |
| 8. D’Elia et al., (2022) Brazil |
Measure differences in inflammatory markers and HPA hormone levels between women with PTSD due to sexual violence and controls at baseline and after 1-year follow-up* | Childhood trauma Sexual assault | 99 (100%) | Women from a sexual assault clinic and healthy volunteers | 26.3(7.2) Race NR |
CRP, IL-6, TNF-a, ACTH, IL-1B | Women with childhood trauma had higher levels ACTH, IL-1B, CRP, TNF-a, and cortisol. History of sexual violence increased inflammatory markers even with depression improvement. |
| 9. Daniels et al., (2022) United States |
Determine if women with a history of chronic depression and repeated sexual violence exposure will have immune alterations that increased risk of HIV* | Sexual abuse | 77 (100%) | Women’s Interagency HIV Study(WIHS) | 35.2 (Median 47.9) 64.9% Black 22.0% White 11.7% Other |
IL-6; TNF-a; Other; IL-1a, IL-1B, IL-8, MIP-3a, IP-10 | In HIV-uninfected population, compared to other groups, History of Abuse + Depression group demonstrated higher levels MIP-3a and IP-10 and lower levels of IL-1B. In HIV-infected groups, Abuse and Abuse + Depression groups had higher levels IL-6 and lower levels of MIP-3a and IP-10. |
| 10. Dittrich et al., (2021) Germany |
Determine the effects of (rMDD) and early life maltreatment (ELM) on CRP and IL-6. And determine how rMDD and ELM types affect CRP and IL-6* |
ELM of any type | 126 (100%) | Multicenter clinical population study Understanding and Breaking the Intergenerational Cycle of Abuse (UBICA) | 39.22(5.78) German Nationality Race NR |
CRP; IL-6 | Sum severity of ELM was correlated with CRP. Higher neglect and physical abuse scores were correlated with CRP. Physical abuse and overall severity of ELM were positively correlated with CRP. |
| 11. Elovainio et al., 2010) United Kingdom |
Evaluate if organizational justice contributes to inflammation over a 14-year follow-up independent of age, sex, occupational grade, BMI smoking, depression, and alcohol β | Organizational justice | 4408 (27%) | Whitehall II study, (British civil servants) | 43.9(5.9) Race NR |
CRP; IL-6 | No relationship between organizational justice and CRP or IL-6. |
| 12. Fang et al., (2014) United States |
Examine associations between acculturative stress and inflammatory markers among Chinese American women† | Negative life events Acculturation stress |
407 (100%) | Community sample | 43.8(4.54) 100% Foreign-born Chinese American |
CRP; TNF receptor 2 (sTNFR2) | Higher levels of acculturative stress were positively associated with CRP and sTNFR2. Stressful life events were not associated with CRP or sTNFR2. |
| 13. Fuller et al., (2019) United States |
To estimate the association ambient particle number concentration (PNC) on CRP and modification by depression, acculturation, stress, discrimination, negative life events ß | Negative life events PNC |
1499 (70%) | Boston Puerto Rican Health Study (BPRHS) | 57.3(7.5) 100% Puerto Rican |
CRP | Women had higher CRP levels than men. Stress and negative life events increased the impact of air pollution on CRP. |
| 14. Gardhouse et al., (2021) Canada |
Investigate whether neuroendoimmune activity mediates the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms* | Early childhood stress Lifetime stress experiences |
59 (100%) | medically healthy adult females | 28.7(9.1) 53.9% White 12.6% >1 race 27.0% Asian 3.2% Black 3.2% Other |
CRP; IL-6; TNF-a; cortisol | Cumulative life stress severity was associated with increased free cortisol. Increased IL6 and decreased free cortisol mediate the effect of early childhood stress on depressive symptoms. |
| 15. Ghosh et al., (2018) United States |
Examine immunobiological mechanisms associated with sexual abuse, depressive symptoms, and HIV* | Chronic sexual abuse | 77 (100%) | WIHS | 35.2 (Median 47.9) 64.9% Black 22.0% White 11.7% Other |
IL-6; TNF-aIIL-1a, IL-1B, IL-8, MIP-3a, IP-10 | In HIV− women, chronic sexual abuse was associated with increased IL-1a, MIP-3a, and IP-10. In HIV+ women, chronic sexual abuse was associated with decreased TNFa, IL6, IL1a, and increased MIP3a. |
| 16. Gruenewald et al., (2009) United States |
Examine SES gradients in levels of CRP and IL-6 among Black and White men and women β | Income Education | 3549 (50.7%) | CARDIA | Black females 44.7 (3.9); White females 45.7 (3.4) 50.0% White 49.9% Black |
CRP; IL-6 | CRP and IL-6 levels were inversely associated with education and income levels in White and Black females. CRP and IL-6 levels were inversely associated with education and income levels in both White males and females. Inflammation biomarker levels inversely associated with SES variables in Black females, except for CRP by income level. |
| 17. Halpern et al., (2016) United States |
Describe the association among intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure, facial injury, and adverse health outcomes* | IPV | 78 (100%) | females, aged 18–64 years from the Meharry Medical College Oral Surgery Clinic | Age NR 47.44% African American 52.56% other ethnicities |
CRP; Cortisol; Cortisol/DHEA; and CRP from saliva | Stress, PTSD, and depression were significantly greater in IPV+ African American females. There were no significant differences seen in Cortisol, Cortisol/DHEA ratios, and CRP between IPV+ and IPV− groups. Salivary DHEA was statistically significant in IPV+. No differences were seen in Cortisol, Cortisol/DHEA ratios, and CRP between IPV+ and IPV− groups. |
| 18. Heath et al., (2013) United States |
Investigate the relationships between IPV, psychological distress, and CRP* | IPV | 139 (100%) | GYN patients with no major illnesses | 28.46(7.76) 83.5% Black 5.8% White 6.4% Other 4.3% Hispanic/Latina |
CRP | Exposure to IPV predicted the presence of depression and PTSD diagnoses. Individuals who experienced PTSD exhibited higher CRP levels, even after adjusting for depression. |
| 19. Hellmann-Regen et al., (2019) Germany |
Disentangle the effects of ACEs on endocrine and immune alterations in MDD* | ACEs Childhood Trauma | 87 (100%) | women with depression and ACEs | 32(11) MDD− / ACE− 37(10) MDD+ / ACE− 33(11) MDD+ / ACE+ 35(12) MDD− / ACE+ Race NR |
mRNA expression of glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) ex vivo in PBMC | Increased proliferation rate of PBMCs in women with ACE detected, regardless of MDD. Neither childhood trauma nor depression had an effect on ex vivo GR sensitivity. No main effects of group on GR and MR expression as assessed by mRNA expression. Women with ACE showed an increased immune response after mitogen stimulation independent of MDD. |
| 20. Hostinar et al., (2015) United States |
Examine childhood and recent stressors in inflammation at mid-life and behavioral modifiers of the associations* | ACEs Recent life events (RLEs) |
1180 (56%) | middle-aged and older adults from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) Biomarker Project |
57.3(11.5) 74.9% NHW 17.9% African American 4% Other 3.2% Hispanic |
CRP; IL-6; fibrinogen, Molecule-1 (ICAM-1) | ACEs and RLEs were independently associated with higher levels of inflammation. ACEs and RLEs were independently associated with higher levels of inflammation. |
| 21. Hughes et al., (2015) United Kingdom |
Examine associations of unemployment with inflammatory markers* | Unemployment | 23,025 (52.7%) | men and women participants from the Health Survey for England(HSE) and Scottish Health Survey(SHeS) between 16 and 64 years of age | 43.1(12.4) Race NR |
CRP; fibrinogen | CRP, fibrinogen and odds of CRP >3 mg/L were significantly raised for unemployed participants, even following adjustment for several social and clinical covariates. Employment predicted CRP, fibrinogen, and odds of CRP >3 mg/L among English participants. In Scotland, associations with all three measures of inflammation were robust. Within England, there were regional interactions for CRP/fibrinogen. |
| 22. Keita et al., (2014) United States |
Examine the association of neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation and metabolic syndrome with inflammation† | Neighborhood area deprivation | 19,079 baseline Quintile 1, 2309(62%); Quintile 2, 2191(58%); Quintile 3, 2036(54%); Quintile 4, 1961(52%); Quintile 5, 1838(49%). | Black and White participants from the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke Study who were age > 45 years | 64.5(9.5) 61% White 39% Black |
CRP | Among Black adults, residing in the most deprived neighborhoods was associated with increased odds of elevated fasting glucose, inflammation, and CRP-MetS. Among White adults, neighborhood deprivation was associated with higher glucose, inflammation, and CRP-MetS. |
| 23. Kim et al., (2019) United States |
Examine the link between three types ACEs and biomarkers of neuroplasticity (BDNF]), CRP and difference by sex* | ACEs | 85 (71.8%) | Undergraduate students at a state university | 20.68(1.76) 33% NHW 54% Hispanic 13% Other |
CRP | Childhood adversity and particularly family dysfunction had a significant positive effect on BDNF. The link between family dysfunction and CRP was stronger in female students. Family dysfunction was a significant predictor of CRP and BDNF. |
| 24. Kramer et al., 2010) Germany |
Examine the association between traffic-related air pollution and incident T2D† |
Air pollution (PM) | 1775 (100%) | nondiabetic middle-aged women from the Study on the Influence of Air Pollution on Lung, Inflammation and Aging (SALIA) | 54.4(0.70) Race NR |
Complement factor 3 cleavage product C3c | Hazards for T2D were increased by 15–42% per interquartile range of PM or traffic-related exposure; C3c was associated with PM pollution at baseline and was a strong independent predictor of T2D. |
| 25. Li et al., (2022) China |
Attempt to link stressful life events (SLEs) and depression through multiple analysis and to explore depression susceptibility* | SLEs Income | 185 (49.73%) | healthy community participants with stressful life events | 47.51(NR) Race NR |
IL-6 | The path analysis model confirmed the significant partial effect of SLEs-IL-6-white matter (WM) network differences-depression. Females, individuals with lower exercise frequency or income were more likely to have higher IL-6 level after SLEs. |
| 26. Lopes et al., (2012) Brazil |
Investigate the effects of childhood maltreatment (CMT) and PTSD symptoms on neuroendocrine/immunological components of women with recurrent MDD* | ELS CMT |
53 (100%) | 38 females with MDD patients and 15 HCs | 39.73 (10.12) MDD 41.06(6.46) CMT 37.078 (5.64) HC Race NR |
IL-6; TNF-a; IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-a, and IFN- y. | MDD participants +/− previous trauma had similarly lower cortisol and DHEAS and blunted T-cell proliferation. Their PBMCs were significantly less sensitive to dexamethasone or epinephrine than the HCs. The MDD and CMT groups had significantly lower IL-2 and IL-4 levels compared to HCs. |
| 27. Magnusson Hanson et al., (2019) United Kingdom |
Investigate whether the circulating inflammatory markers mediate the relationship between work characteristics and diabetes† |
Social support at work Job strain Job demands Job control | 4638 (28%) | Whitehall II cohort | 49.6(6.0) Race NR |
CRP; IL-6 | Low social support at work, but neither high job demands nor low job control was associated with diabetes and higher IL-6. Inflammatory markers and diabetes were bidirectionally associated. IL-6 partially mediated the association between social support and diabetes, job control associated with IL-6 in women. |
| 28. Magnusson Hanson et al., (2017) France |
Quantify differences in adverse adiposity, metabolic, respiratory, and inflammatory biomarker levels between individuals with and without work stress† | Work stress | 43,593 (52%) | working adults from a French population-based sample aged 18–72 years (the CONSTANCES cohort) | 43(10.8) Race NR |
White blood cell count, triglycerides, LDL, HDL, total cholesterol | Work stress was associated altered metabolic profile, increased systemic inflammation. Work stress was associated with higher WBC and altered metabolic profile associated with increased cardiometabolic risk. |
| 29. Morris et al., (2011) United States |
Test whether the association between depression and inflammation differs by race and sex* | Race | 512 (60.5%) | Morehouse and Emory Team up to Eliminate Health Disparities (META-Health) Study | 52(9) White 50(9) African American 53.5% White 46.5% Black |
CRP | No difference in depression scores between African American and White women. White women with mild to severe depression had higher CRP. CRP and depression were only associated in white women. |
| 30. Nakamura et al., (2022) United States |
Identify modifiable, social factors that moderate the relationship between ELS and depressive symptoms and inflammation* | Early life stress | 3416 (58.25%) | adults in the 2006 wave of the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative sample of older adults in the United States | 68.41 (10.24) Race NR |
CRP | A small, positive association between ELS and depressive symptoms, moderated by social contact and perceived support was detected. ELS was only associated with elevated depressive symptoms for participants with limited social contact and low perceived support. |
| 31. Newton et al., (2011) United States |
Examine associations between IPV and CRP and IL-6 in midlife women with past IPV ß | IPV Adversity before age of 12 |
68 (100%) | Apparently healthy, midlife women with divorce histories recruited from the community | 54.68(3.23) 85.29% European American or White 14.71% African American or Black |
CRP; IL-6; also in vitro IL-6 production by PBMCs | A history of being stalked was positively correlated with CRP levels, association was attenuated adjusting for BMI. Physical assault history was negatively correlated IL-6. IPV was associated with increased CRP and in vitro stimulated IL-6 but not associated with depression. Childhood adversity was not associated with biomarkers. |
| 32. Niles et al., (2018) United States |
Examine longitudinal associations (over 4 years) between depression and anxiety symptoms and inflammation* | Education | 13,775 (59%) | Health and Retirement Study | 66.7(10.8) 2006 Cohort 68.3(10.5) 2008 Cohort 80–84% White 16–20% African American or Other |
CRP | Inflammation predicted worsening depression for women, but not men. Somatic symptoms predicted increasing inflammation for men and were predicted by inflammation for women. Inflammation predicted worsening dysphoric symptoms of depression. Lack of positive affect predicted increasing inflammation. Higher CRP was associated with older age and lower education. |
| 33. Osborn et al., (2020) United States |
Determine whether childhood maltreatment is associated with higher CRP later in life and whether individuals with official and retrospective self-reports of maltreatment and men and women show similar increases in risk† | Childhood physical/sexual abuse and neglect | 443 (48.5%) | offspring of parents from a longitudinal study about consequences of childhood maltreatment | 23.4(5.23) 59.1% White 40.9% Black |
CRP | Individuals with official reports of child maltreatment and, specifically, physical abuse, had significantly higher levels of CRP than non-maltreated individuals. Maltreated females showed elevated CRP, independent of control variables, whereas no significant association was observed in males. Retrospective self-report measures of child maltreatment did not predict elevated CRP. Official reports of childhood maltreatment were predictive of elevated CRP in women. |
| 34. Phillips et al., (2009) United States |
Examine the association of both parental and individual educational attainment with CRP† | Parental education attainment Individual educational attainment |
811 (51%) | mid-life community sample participants from the University of Pittsburgh Adult Health and Behavior (AHAB) project |
44.8 (6.7) 84% European-American (women) 16% African-American (women) |
CRP | Both parental education and individual education was associated inversely with CRP in women, but not in men. This persisted after adjustment for both lifestyle risk factors and individual SES. Women whose parents had fewer years of education showed higher plasma concentrations of CRP than those with higher parental educational attainment, an effect that was independent of women’s own educational attainment, age, and race. |
| 35. Pikhartova et al., (2014) United Kingdom |
Examine the role of childhood social position and later inflammatory markers and health behaviors in developing T2D at older ages using a pathway analytic approach† | Childhood social position | 7015 (57%) | men and women from the English Longitudinal Study of Aging cohort | 68.9(NR) Race NR |
CRP | Disadvantaged social position in childhood, measured as a father’s manual occupation, was associated with an increased risk of T2D in adulthood. This relationship was mediated by inflammation. Childhood SES was associated with increased CRP and T2D later in life. |
| 36. Ploubidis et al., (2015) United Kingdom |
Examine the association between trajectories of partnership status over the life course and health indicators in midlife† | Partnership status | 18,558 (52%) | data from the British National Child Development Study, birth cohort study | 44–46 (NR) Race NR |
CRP | A longitudinal typology of partnership status spanning 21 years was associated with inflammatory and hemostatic markers and health outcomes. Midlife women who divorced in their 30s had increased midlife CRP compared to women who married and stayed married in their 20s. |
| 37. Powers et al., (2016) United States |
Examine the differential associations between trauma exposure, emotion dysregulation, current MDD, current PTSD, and CRP in a traumatized urban, sample of women with T2D ß | Childhood abuse Lifetime trauma |
40 (100%) | African-American women with T2DM recruited from an urban hospital | 51.88(7.57) 100% African American |
CRP | Emotional dysregulation was significantly positively correlated with CRP concentrations. The association between child abuse severity and CRP trended toward significance. However, overall trauma exposure (excluding child abuse) was not significantly correlated with CRP. Child abuse was not significantly related to CRP among AA women with T2D. |
| 38. Prescott et al., (2007) Denmark |
Explore the association between socioeconomic factors and MetS and whether associations are explained by psychosocial and behavioral factors† | Education | 6038 (57%) | random sample of the general population from the Copenhagen City Heart Study | 46–66* mean varied slightly by quintile Race not reported | CRP | Higher educational was associated with a better metabolic profile (waist/hip ratio), dyslipidemia (HDL and triglycerides), SBP, glucose intolerance, and CRP. MetS was strongly associated with educational level in both men and women. Psychosocial/behavioral factors did not explain association between educational level and MetS components. Education level was inversely correlated with CRP and all other measures of MetS. |
| 39. Rathmann et al., (2006) Germany |
Evaluate whether CRP impacts the associations of low SES with T2D or diabetes precursors (impaired glucose tolerance, impaired fasting glucose) in the KORA Survey participants† |
Education Occupational status Income | 1476 (48.06%) | data from The KORA (Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg) Survey 2000 (a population-based study in Southern Germany) |
65.1(4.7)* (low SES) 63.1(5.0) (mid SES) 63.5 (6.0) (high SES) Race NR |
CRP | Low SES was not related to prediabetes. CRP was significantly associated with diabetes precursors. Inflammation appeared not to play a major role linking low SES and T2D in older adults. In women but not in men, continuously decreasing CRP with increasing SES were found. After stratifying for glucose tolerance status, the inverse relation remained in women with NGT and prediabetes but in T2D subjects’ trend was not significant. |
| 40. Saban et al., (2018) United States |
Examine the influence of perceived discrimination on the inflammatory response to a laboratory acute stress paradigm in women at risk for CVD† | Perceived discrimination | 99 (100%) | postmenopausal women with 2 or more CVD risk factors | 60.2(6.7) 50.5% African American 49.50% NHW |
CRP; IL-6 | Perceived discrimination was significantly associated with the IL-6 response to the TSST, and CRP. |
| 41. Shen et al., (2010) Sweden |
Examine the relationships among marital stress, waist circumference, and CRP; Test whether marital stress was associated with CRP and whether this association was moderated by WC† | Marital stress | 201 (100%) | Healthy married or partnered women from the Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study | 56.13(6.99) Race NR |
CRP | Marital stress was not directly associated with CRP. There was a significant interaction between marital stress and WC such that marital stress was positively associated with CRP among women with a larger waist. |
| 42. Stacey et al., (2019) Australia |
Compare general and biomedical health status of informal carers with non-carers with an emphasis on gender differences ß | Family caregiving | 1788 (52.07%) | members of the Northwest Adelaide Health Study 40 years and older | Age 40 and over Race NR | CRP; IL-6; TNF-a | Among women, there were no significant differences with regard to the other inflammatory biomarkers IL-6, and TNFa. Association between caregiving and CRP, IL6, TNFa; hsCRP was positively associated with caregiving only when men and women analyzed together. |
| 43. Stepanikova et al., (2017) United States |
Investigate the associations BMI and WC with markers of systemic inflammation in midlife by race and gender† | Race Discrimination Income Education |
1075 (56.47%) | non-institutionalized English speaking US residents over 35 years from the Survey of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS II) | 54.79 (11.55) White women 51.50 (10.95) Black women 84% White 16% Black |
CRP; IL-6; fibrinogen; E-selectin | For most race-gender groups, WC showed more consistent associations with inflammation markers than did BMI, although the observed relationships varied by inflammation measure and population group. For White men and women, WC related to all four biomarkers of inflammation. For Black women, WC was a significant contributor to fibrinogen, CRP, and IL-6. Higher education was related to lower fibrinogen among White women. Biomarkers that increased with income included fibrinogen and CRP for White women, and IL-6 for Black women. E-selectin concentrations decreased with higher income among Black women. Perceived lifetime discrimination was associated with higher fibrinogen, CRP, and IL-6 concentrations among White women, and higher fibrinogen among Black women. |
| 44. Waisberg et al., (2011) South Africa |
Determine ethnic differences in body fat distribution, adipokine levels, and SES that may explain population differences in the prevalence of these metabolic disorders† | SES Education Ethnicity |
100 (100%) | African and Indian women residing in the Greater Johannesburg area | 45.4(1.1) Indian 42.2(0.9) African 50% African 50% Asian-Indian |
CRP; IL-6; TNF-a | TNFa levels were significantly higher in the African group, whilst visceral fat levels were significantly lower. The CRP and IL-6 levels were not different between groups. Ethnic differences in CRP, IL-6 or leptin receptor were not noted in lean or obese subjects. No correlations were observed between TNFa, IL-6 and anthropometric parameters, CT-scan analysis and SES or education in either ethnic group. |
| 45. Weaver et al., (2015) India |
Develop and test a series of hypotheses about the relationships that might exist between diabetes, psychological distress, social role fulfillment, and biological markers measuring blood sugar control, generalized inflammation, and immune stress ß | Symptoms of “tension” Stressful life events Number of children Joint family status SES | 280 (100%) | women with and without T2D from approached in clinic waiting rooms | 54 (diabetes) 47.3(no diabetes) Range: 27.0–78.0 Race NR |
CRP | CRP not associated with SES or life events in women with or without T2D. Results suggest that influences from North Indian women’s with T2D social lives become embodied in their physical and mental health. |
| 46. Zainal et al., (2021) United States |
Test if elevated inflammatory activity predicts future within-person 9-year change in MDD diagnosis* | Childhood trauma Income |
945 (52.78%) | community-dwelling adults | 54.33 (11.06) 95.37% White 4.63% African American, Asian, Pacific Islander, or other ethnicities |
CRP; IL-6, fibrinogen | Increased CRP, fibrinogen, and IL-6 levels predicted 9-year MDD diagnostic status change more strongly in younger than older adults, women but not men, those with low (vs. high) income, as well as persons with high (vs. low) childhood trauma frequency and number of chronic illnesses. CRP, IL6 predicted depression most strongly in women with low incomes, high childhood trauma. |
Note: Clinical foci of the studies are denoted as follows:
*
= depression,
†
= type 2diabetes/ metabolic risk,
ß
= depression + type 2 diabetes/ metabolic risk;
**
racial composition given for women only when relevant and available in the studies;
ACEs = adverse childhood experiences; ACTH = Adrenocorticotropic hormone; BMI = body mass index; CRP = C-reactive protein; CVD = Cardiovascular disease; DHEAS = dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; GR = glucocorticoid; HbA1c = hemoglobin A1C; HPA = hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; IL = interleukin; IP-10 = protein-10; IPV = intimate partner violence; MDD = major depressive disorder; MetS = metabolic syndrome; MIP-3α = macrophage inflammatory protein 3-alpha; M1/M2 ratio = Immunogenomic phenotypes (M1/M2 ratio); MR = mineralocorticoid receptor; NGT = normal glucose tolerance; NHW = Non-Hispanic White; NR = not reported; PBMC = Peripheral blood-derived mononuclear cells; PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder; rMDD = major depressive disorder in remission; SDoH = social determinant of health; SE = socioeconomic; SES = socioeconomic status; sTNFR2 = the soluble fraction of tumor necrosis factor alpha receptor 2; TNF = tumor necrosis factor; TSST = Trier Social Stress Test; T2D = Type 2 Diabetes; WC = Waist Circumference.